Physiology of BEEs

Physiology of BEEs Pollination makes the world go round

Overview: Bees are apart of the super family called Apoidea. Apis mellifera (western honey bees) are apart of the Animalia kingdom, within the arthropoda phylum, in the insecta class and the Hymenoptera order.

-Lifestyle and Behavior

There are many different kinds of bees. The average life span of a worker bee is 6 weeks. However, the average lifespan of a queen bee is 2 years. Male drone bees do not build nests or create honey, their purpose is to fertilize a queen bee to reproduce and protect the hive. If there is a second queen bee reproduced, it will be pushed out of the hive to start a new nest elsewhere. All worker bees are female and their purpose changes with age and needs of the colony. Younger worker bees take care of the larvae and queen and produce bees wax in order to expand and build the structures of the nest. Eventually, when worker bees mature they start outside work for the hive by collecting pollen, nectar and water to produce honey. Hives contain a range of 20,000-80,000 members of the colony. (Orkin: "Honey Bee Life Span"), (Museum of Earth: "Bee-havior")

-Types of Bee Social Structures

There are many different kinds of social structures for bees. These structures include: solitary bees, brood parasites, and social bees. Solitary bees make up about 75% of the bee population. Solitary bees revolve around the queen who does all the work for her offspring, including: gathering pollen, laying eggs and defending the nest. The queen does not rely on workers or any other bees and their main goal is to raise offspring. Brood parasites make up about 15% of the bee population and they do not build their own nests or gather pollen. Instead, a female bee will enter a host's nest and lay an egg which will hatch and kill the host's offspring and consume pollen balls of the host's nest. Social bees make up about 9% of the bee population and revolve around colonies. These are the honey bees we normally refer to. (Museum Of Earth: "Bee-havior")

Larvae, workers, drones and queens make up the colony. The queen is unable to survive on her own so worker bees collect pollen to make honey and drones protect the nest. (Museum of Earth: "Bee-havior") Winter survival for bees is very interesting. As it is mentioned in the National Geographic article on the honeybee: "Male bees are called drones—the third class of honeybee. Several hundred drones live in each hive during the spring and summer, but they are expelled for the winter months when the hive goes into a lean survival mode. Bees live on stored honey and pollen all winter, and cluster into a ball to conserve warmth. Larvae are fed from the stores during this season and, by spring, the hive is swarming with a new generation of bees." (Joel Sartore: "Honeybee") During the winter, once the hive is in "lean survival mode" bee behavior is similar to hibernation except they do not sleep for the season. Drones are prevented from entering the hive since they do not contribute to hive operations, they are not needed and die off. Female worker bees force the male bees out of the hive since they only protect the nest and the generation of the colony continues through the larvae. (Joel Sartore: "Honeybee")

-Navigation & Sensory Physiology

Bees use orientation flight on their first flight of the day in order to locate their nest. Orientation flight starts with a zig-zag and loopy departure out of the nest. Parts of their sensory physiology include: 5 total ocelli (eyes), utilization of an ultraviolet spectrum (this means they can't see red), and use of polarized light patterns found in the sky. Polarized light patterns from the sky encompass bees and are their main tool for navigation. In the bee's dorsal rim of their compound eye, they have a powerful photoreceptor which is sensitive to polarized light. They also have polarization-sensitive interneurons found inside their medulla, proving that the polarized light is analyzed by their brain. Another interesting fact is that bees use "waggle dances" to communicate travel information to nest-mates or other bees in the colony. (C. Evangelista, P. Kraft, M. Dacke, T. Labhart and M. V. Srinivasan: "Honeybee navigation: critically examining the role of the polarization compass")

Flight patterns have been analyzed with the use of polarized light for bees determining where to create their new nest in an experiment published in Smithsonian Magazine. Scout bees who found ideal cavities for a future nest would wag violently. "Through years of study, Seeley and his colleagues have uncovered a few principles honeybees use to make these smart decisions. The first is enthusiasm. A scout coming back from an ideal cavity will dance with passion, making 200 circuits or more and waggling violently all the way. But if she inspects a mediocre cavity, she will dance fewer circuits." This is very fascinating and explains how bees analyze their environment and relay information of what they found to their nest-mates. Bees have a very unique form of communication and can relay certain flight patterns and threats to the hive members. This is why when someone is stung, often times more bees will appear. When a bee dies outside the hive, a chemical is released that is picked up by the hive and this is another reason bees will travel to the point of death of a bee to analyze the threat in order to protect the hive. (Carl Zimmer, "The Secret Life of Bees") Once a suitable place is found for a nest, female worker bees begin to construct the nest a new queen arrive with drones. This leads to a new colony and expands the bee population exponentially.

-Bee Anatomy and Physiology

There are many physiological properties incorporated in the anatomy and physiology of the bee to support its function and survival. Bees have a straw-like mouth to collect pollen and nectar called proboscis and a mandible that is used to chew pollen for honey production and to chew wax for nest building. The labium is a tongue-like structure used to taste and aid with drinking. A pharynx is present as a muscle to move the labrum (or mouth flap) and to suck up both food (honey) or nectar. The hypopharyngeal gland is necessary to produce "royal jelly" which larvae feast on. The salivary gland also plays a part in producing royal jelly and the liquid produced from the salivary gland dissolves sugar and is also used to clean their system. Salivation is also an identifier for the colony-their chemical identity. Bee's brains have amazing memory processing and learning capabilities. For their hearts, they have an open circulatory system, meaning they do not have blood vessels, blood is pumped but is free flowing throughout cavities in the organism. For their respiratory system, they have air sacs as reservoirs and air travels throughout hollow tubes known as spiracles. The midgut is responsible for digestion and nutrient absorption, similar to our small intestine. The rectum is similar to our large intestine where water, salt and waste is absorbed. Waste is expelled through the anus. Bees have a stinger connected to a venom sack. A venom gland produces the venom and venom is secreted through the stinger. Bees also have a wax gland which begins producing wax around twelve days after the birth of the bee and bees can only produce wax for six days before the gland degenerates. This is another reason the queen has to produce so many offspring in order to maintain the construction of the hive. For their nervous system, bees have a ventral nerve which is similar to our spine. Nerve fibers are found in bundles that can send signals throughout the organism. Thorax muscles allow bees to fly and move, they also allow bees to beat their wings up to 230 times a second. (Christopher M. Jernigan, "Bee Anatomy")

-Process and Importance of Pollination

Plants are able to reproduce thanks to bee pollination. Hairs of the bee's body pick up stamen pollen which is the male reproductive organ of a flower. This pollen is then carried to the stigma or pistil which is the female reproductive organ of a flower, allowing fertilization and fruit/seed development. (Gary Brown, Bragg: "Bee Pollination") There are only a few pollinating insects in the world and bees make up most of this population. This is why it is crucial for us to preserve the bee population and let it flourish, in order to promote fertilization and reproduction of plants throughout the world. It is also the economic structure for many crops throughout the world so more bees equals more crop production. Male plant genetic information would not be able to travel without the help of bee pollination. Pollination would depend on the smaller insect populations and the wind for fertilization without bees. With the size of one colony, bees often have an average of 5,000-15,000 bees foraging during the day at a time. These bees collect pollen from a variety of species of plants. (Mark Goodwin: "Pollination") According to the magazine article "Planting for Pollination," by Lisa Bramen, there are many threats to pollinators due to environmental changes and decline in both the environment and populations of pollinators. Climate change, parasites, insecticides and invasive species are causing havoc towards pollinating populations- mainly bees and butterflies. Electromagnetic pollution also contributes to the disruption of the bee population. Climate change is also causing flowers to bloom at different times and insect larvae to hatch at different times. This means, with different time cycles, that the insects and flowers can mature at very different times and possibly miss each other. This disrupts the codependence of plant and insects and is another reason climate change is such a huge threat to the bee population. (Lisa Bramen: "Planting for Pollinators") This shows how greenhouse gases and adding chemicals to our environments are negatively affecting important populations in our ecosystems and why we need to be more conscious of these aspects of climate change. Pollinator populations are declining in a pattern. Conservationists are warning of an "insect apocalypse." Certain soil fertilizers and weed prevention chemicals are also greatly deteriorating populations of pollinators. (Steve Pence: "Pollination: Meet the Pollinators")

HOW WE CAN HELP POLLINATORS:

A way we can contribute to increase the rate of pollination in the world is to prevent the use of pesticides and poisons on our properties and plant flowers! An increase in native garden abundances will greatly benefit both the plant and bee population as they are codependent. Dandelions and other weeds provide early spring meals for pollinators and will increase bee populations before flowers appear. This shows that flower weeds are far more important than we believe, they are not just pests. Regarding the web of life and the butterfly effect, the more homes that plant a small garden will slowly but surely positively affect of pollinator populations and pollination rates throughout the world. (Ryan P. Smith: "How to Protect Your Local Pollinators in Ten Easy Ways")

-Reproduction

Bee reproduction begins with the queen laying multiple eggs which hatch after three days. The hatchlings develop into larvae which are known as "grubs." The grubs are started on a diet of royal jelly which is discontinued and replaced by honey after they mature into an adult. However, future queens are kept on the royal jelly diet. Future queens take 16 days to develop, worker bees take about 21 days to develop and drones take 24 days. Worker bees take care of and feed the larvae until maturation. Around day 15, the bees begin to form a pupa where their organs are organized and develop towards maturation. In the batch of a new generation, multiple new queens develop as well. The new queens fight until there is only one queen remaining in the hive. In the meantime, the previous queen and her worker (also referred to as a swarm) have left the hive to form two or more new colonies after scouts have found new nesting sites. The reproduction and life span of bees are rather short and this is why the large amounts of offspring is crucial for the survival of bee populations. (Charles Henry Turner: "Honeybee")

Male bees statistically have less than 1% chance of successfully reproducing and 100% of death after mating. The drones gather during the spring in search of a virgin queen. The virgin queen will mate with about 12 suitors and during this mating process, the queen will gather all the genetic information for the males needed in her lifetime. One queen is able to lay about 2,000 eggs if the hive is doing well. The mating process involve the drones chasing the queen, mounting the queen and secreting semen through their endophallus into the queen's sting chamber. The semen is release with so much force and speed, it has been reported to release an audible popping noise. The endophallus of the drone stays with the queen and this is when the drone begins to die off. They fall to the ground after climax and are left paralyzed. It is believed that many common pesticides act as bee contraceptive and prevents the males from fertilizing with a queen. This is another way pesticides are deteriorating the bee population and limiting the production of new offspring. (Elizabeth Anne Brown: "How Humans Are Messing Up Bee Sex")

-Bees Wax

Bees wax provides structural foundation for hives but is also harvested for products used by humans. Beeswax is produced from their abdominal segment and is produced when the young feast on royal jelly. The saliva and enzymes inside the bees allow the beeswax to become pliable and would not be useable for bees without the chemical process that occurs inside their bodies. (Joslin Menezes, K.A. Athmaselvi: "Beeswax")

Bees wax is collected during honey extraction by bee keepers leaving combs in the sun 2-3 times daily and this melts the empty combs. Beeswax has been harvested for a variety of products including: slow-release drugs, a mode of transport for drugs and a foundation of cosmetics. It has also been used a preservative of moisture for some fruits like strawberries. Beeswax hardens when exposed to air and is used to contain both honey and bee larvae before maturation. They are created into a hexagon shape and a composed of a variation of fatty acids, fatty alcohols, diesters, monoesters, and hydoxymonoesters. When harvested, beeswax is often steamed or dehydrated in order to purify the composition but the method of purification will vary depending on what the wax is planned to be used for. When a swarm leaves a hive to a form a new colony, they engorge themselves with remaining honey from the old hive and digest the honey into beeswax in order to build the new nest. (Larry Connor: "Beeswax") Clearly, beeswax is important to the lifecycle of bees and we should not over utilize it.

-Importance of Bee Keepers

Bee keepers are important to both the ecosystem and population of bees. Bee keepers offer a manageable operation that provides a safe environment for bee populations and this helps exponentially grow the population as some keepers release queens in order to allow them to create their own nests. There are differences among bee keepers as some use more chemicals and pest controls in their hives. Each keeper has their own goals of production and philosophy towards bees and the materials they produce. Also how the products of bees should be utilized. Bee keepers help produce the majority of bees wax that is used in our industries, as well as honey that we use for foods. Wild bees are responsible for 1/3 of our foods, mainly produce so between wild and kept bees, their existence is crucial for our environment, ecosystem and way of life. (Charles Sanders: "Beekeeping Basics") Bee keepers are able to keep bees healthy and continuously reproducing so this can limit the decline of the bee population but they are limited to how much the bees can contribute to the fertilization process of plants. Bees are a cornerstone of our ecosystem and we need to keep their populations thriving!! (Robyn M. Underwood, Brenna E. Traver, and Margarita M. López-Uribe: "Beekeeping Management Practices Are Associated with Operation Size and Beekeepers’ Philosophy towards in-Hive Chemicals")

-Works Cited

-Orkin, 2021 https://www.orkin.com/pests/stinging-pests/bees/honey-bees/honey-bee-life-span

-Museum of the Earth, 2021 https://www.museumoftheearth.org/bees/behavior

-Charles Henry Turner, 2020 https://www.britannica.com/animal/honeybee

-Christopher M. Jernigan, 2017 https://askabiologist.asu.edu/bee-colony-life

-C. Evangelista, P. Kraft, M. Dacke, T. Labhart and M. V. Srinivasan, 2014 https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2013.0037

-Christopher M. Jernigan, 2017 https://askabiologist.asu.edu/honey-bee-anatomy

-Mark Goodwin, 2012 https://beeaware.org.au/pollination/

-Robyn M. Underwood, Brenna E. Traver, and Margarita M. López-Uribe, 2019 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6359672/

-Randy Oliver, 2016 https://scientificbeekeeping.com/

-Zackary Huang, 2019 https://bee-health.extension.org/anatomy-of-the-honey-bee/

-Keng-Lou James Hung, Jennifer M. Kingston, Matthias Albrecht, David A. Holway and Joshua R. Kohn, 2018 https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2017.2140

-Mario Pahl, Hong Zhu, Jürgen Tautz, and Shaowu Zhang, 2011 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3094336/

-Joseph L. Woodgate, James C. Makinson, Ka S. Lim, Andrew M. Reynolds & Lars Chittka, 2017 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-17553-1

-Virgina Morell, 2012 https://www.wired.com/2012/09/bumblebee-traveling-salesman/

-Patrick Blair, 2018 https://www.perfectbee.com/learn-about-bees/the-science-of-bees/the-anatomy-of-bees

-Maria Gabriela de Brito Sanchez, 2011 https://academic.oup.com/chemse/article/36/8/675/265934

- Basel Karger, 2007 https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/102974

-D. Muller, B. Gerber, F. Hellstern, M. Hammer, R. Menzel, 2010 https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/203/8/1351/8536/Sensory-preconditioning-in-honeybees

Gray Sources:

-Visscher, P. K., 2003 https://bees.ucr.edu/honeybee-dance-language

-Joel Sartore, 2012 https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/facts/

-Carl Zimmer, 2012 https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-secret-life-of-bees-99559587/

-Lisa Bramen, 2020https://www.nature.org/en-us/magazine/magazine-articles/planting-for-pollinators/