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Synesthesia and Religion Ciara Mulvihill

LJ is a 50-year-old man presenting with an olfactory stimulus when presented with a visual image. This means when he sees an image, he experiences the smell associated with that image. For example, when presented an image of dress shoes, LJ will smell leather. Researchers oriented this study around the central question: is this a new form of synesthesia or just vivid imagery?

Researchers went forward in testing this question in two ways: first, they presented LJ and control group with 75 images of ordinary objects and asked them to indicate the strength of the perceived odors induced by the visual images on a scale of 1 to 7 with 1 inducing no smell and 7 inducing a strong smell. Secondly, they took fMRI images of both LJ and the control group in conjunction to images inducing the strongest sense of smell reported by LJ and color-matched control images to determine where, if any, brain activity occurred.

There were two results: first, LJ reported several images as inducing concurrent odor while the control group did not. There was a caveat to this. LJ only reported experiencing an olfactory response to images of objects that would induce a smell in real life and the smell was congruent to the object - it was not a smell that was unrelated to the object, which would be expected in other cases of synesthesia. Secondly, LJ had an increased BOLD response in the piriform cortex, or the primary olfactory cortex, for the odor-inducing images compared to the control images. The control group did not experience an increased BOLD response from the two stimuli.

BOLD response, otherwise known as, blood-oxygen-level-dependent signal, shows the contrast of blood deoxyhemoglobin in an MRI. Increases in neuronal activity require more glucose and oxygen that is not readily stored in the neurons and thus must be delivered from the bloodstream. This glucose and oxygen is delivered to active neurons faster than inactive neurons and this difference in oxyhemoglobin presence can be seen in an MRI. Thus, when LJ's piriform cortex lit up on the MRI, researchers were able to see that LJ was actively experiencing smell when presented with the images.

The researchers concluded that LJ is not experiencing olfactory imagery, due to the active BOLD response in his piriform cortex indicating he was having an active olfactory experience. However, due to the small sample size in the study and inability to administer the typical synesthetic tests, they were unable to conclude definitively that he was in fact experiencing a form of synesthesia although most of the evidence points to that being the case. The researchers proposed use of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in order to differentiate the functional and structural network differences between LJ and the control group to determine if any fibers connecting the visual and olfactory systems existed.

What is Synesthesia?

There are many definitions of synesthesia that capture the nuances of the condition. However, the one definition that provides the most insight into what the condition actually is was defined by Hubbard and Ramachandran (2005).

They define synesthesia as "a condition in which stimulation of one sensory modality causes unusual experiences in a second, unstimulated modality"

There are many forms of synesthesia. The most common, or at least most reported, form is grapheme-color synesthesia where the individual sees color in response to viewing letters and/or numbers.

What Causes Synesthesia?

The genetic components of synesthesia are thought to be a familial trait that effects more women than men in a X-linked dominant inheritance pattern although there is conflicting research on the subject.

There are two proposed neural basis's for synesthesia. The first being attributed to failure of neural pruning referring to the idea that anatomical connections in the brain that are typically lost during development and somehow remain intact into adulthood. Secondly, some form of disinhibition contributes to synesthesia.

There are several explanations of the underlying brain mechanisms that could give rise to synesthesia. The first being local crossactivation such that two areas of the brain have their functions cross-wired. Hubbard and Ramachandran (2005) explain this phenomenon in terms of grapheme-color synesthesia to be in terms of the visual word form area that lies adjacent to the color processing region hV4 and that crossactivation of these areas result in grapheme-color synesthesia. They suggest that this crossactivation occurs as a result of failure of prenatal neural pruning between these areas. Re-entrant processing and long-range disinhibited feedback are other mechanisms that are proposed to be the neural mechanisms behind synesthesia.

How is it Diagnosed?

Richard Cytowic is considered to be the father of synesthesia. He has extensively studied and written many papers and books on synesthesia that has led to the condition becoming studied more extensively in the fields of neuroscience and psychology.

To diagnosis synesthesia in an individual, the synesthetic experience must meet five criteria. Synesthetic experiences must be involuntary and elicited. This means that the experiences are passive, irrepressible, and unable to be experienced or suppressed at will. Secondly, the experiences are projected. The best way to describe the experience is as if it were an out-of-body experience. It occurs as an outward experience like seeing colorful spots after having your eyes closed tightly. Third, the experiences are durable and generic such that the perceptions are constant, do not change over time, and are not detailed - they are vague shapes, textures, or tastes. Fourth, the experiences must be memorable, not only in terms of being able to recall the experiences but also in terms of the ability to improve memory. Finally, the experiences come with an emotional attachment. Synesthetes must feel as if the experiences are real and valid.

Most individuals do not report their synesthesia has having a negative impact on their lives. On the contrary, many report to enjoy being able to see the world differently than everyone else. Thus, there is no treatment for synesthesia. Rather, research of the condition is focused on understanding its neurological basis.

Ariel Bloomer, lead singer of the band Icon for Hire, describes her experience living with synesthesia. She went on to give a TED talk about how she uses her mental illness to create more joy and connection in her life. Although she does not discuss her synesthesia in the TED talk, it can apply because, as she describes in her first video, living with synesthesia is not always easy.

Chara and Gillett (2004) set out to explore whether a group of 187 nonsynesthetes could have synesthetic experiences of God. Nonsyesthetes are people who do not have involuntarily synesthetic experiences but rather voluntarily induced synesthetic experiences through stimuli such “metaphors and metonymies to personal and cultural experiences.”

For this study, Chara and Gillett (2004) relied on a narrower definition of synesthesia – strong synesthesia and weak synesthesia. They used definitions presented by Martino and Marks (2001) such that strong synesthesia is experienced by synesthetes as a “rare occurrence in the population; idiosyncratic and systematic; automatically evoked; and the associations are generated by sensory processes.” For example, two people who experience synesthesia will see two different colored images while hearing the same musical note. Weak synesthesia is “a universal experience; systematic, but not idiosyncratic; more learned than automatically evoked; and the associations are based in linguistic processes." For example, red is considered a warm color whereas blue is considered a cool color.

The participants in this study were considered nonsynesthetes undergoing weak synesthesia. Chara and Gillett (2004) argue that if synesthesia can be experienced and generated by learned stimuli than religious beliefs can take on a synesthetic quality via weak synesthesia. To determine if this is possible, they asked participants to describe God in regard to the five sensory modalities. These were the responses: 1. God’s voice is more quiet than loud, 2. God’s smell is more pleasant than unpleasant and less noticeable than noticeable (specifically flowery), 3. God is better tasting than poorer tasting and more noticeable than unnoticeable (specifically sweet and meaty), 4. God is closer in terms of touch, larger than smaller, softer than harder, and warmer than cooler. 5. His shape is more circular or triangular. 6. God is brighter than darker, more visible, and yellow was the color associated with God.

Chara and Gillett (2004) concluded that the study proved that religious beliefs could have synesthetic qualities, particularly in line with the definition of weak synesthesia. They used the two criteria proposed by Martino and Marks (2001) for determining a weak synesthetic experience: “sensory associations show commonalities in perceptions, and the associations are organized in a systematic fashion: the more desirable a sensory quality, the more likely it is associated with God.” They also believe that this finding supports the semantic coding hypothesis (SCH) proposed by Martino and Marks (2001) for weak synesthesia congruent effects – namely, that semantic processes are contextual, metaphorical, and primarily learned.

Stories and experiences of synesthesia can be found throughout the Bible and Christian theology. The most prominent example of synesthetic experience that can be found in the Bible is in the Book of Exodus when Moses and the people at Mt. Sinai hear and see the voice of God as Moses was given the Ten Commandments (Exodus 19-20)

"Now Mount Sinai was completely enveloped in smoke, because the Lord had come down upon it in fire. . . The blast of the shofar grew louder and louder, while Moses was speaking and God was answering him with thunder" (Exodus 19:18-19).

In Exodus, God is described as fire, his voice is thunder, and later, Moses describes God as being a dark cloud.

"Moses answered the people, "Do not be afraid, for God has come only to test you and put fear of him upon you so you do not sin." So the people remained at a distance, while Moses approached the dark cloud where God was" (Exodus 20:20-21).

Boyd Taylor Coolman, in his book, Knowing God By Experience: The Spiritual Senses in the Theology of William of Auxerre, explores the connection between synesthesia and the way that God is experienced through the senses in William of Auxerre's theology.

Odors of Sanctity: Distinctions of the Holy in Early Christianity and Islam by Mary Thurkill explores the link between smell with ideas of the body and sexuality while also connecting olfactory experiences to religious practices.

Incense and Holy Bread: The Sense of Belonging Through Ritual by Sara Lei Sparre and Lise Paulsen Galal sets out to examine how the church establishes a ritual space that involves the senses such that attendees “participate in and identify with particular times and places.”

From Incense to Idolatry: The Reformation of Olfaction in Late Medieval German Ritual by Jacob Baum “examines the significance of smell in late medieval and early Reformation ritual.” The main argument presented is that late medieval ritual used the power of smell to “affect senses of boundary demarcation and transition between bodies, the world, and the divine.”

Dr. Eben Alexander tells his story of experience of synesthesia following a near-death-experience after a rare case of bacterial meningitis. He described his coma as being in "The Core" - a place where "flocks of transparent orbs, shimmering beings arced across the sky, leaving long, streamer-like lines behind them." He claims to have been able to "hear the visual beauty." Following that experience, Dr. Alexander's perception of synesthesia changed.

"The phenomenon of synesthesia, [it] will help us to understand more about that fundamental reality of our soul and spirit that exists eternally, and that is truly experience and is truly the source of memory" - Dr. Alexander
Left: My cats, Cheddar and Joey Right: Hiking in Tennessee at Smoky Mountain National Park

About Me

I am a senior biology major, graduating this December. I will be the first person in my family to graduate with a Bachelor's Degree. Right now, I am applying for a Master's degree in Biomedical Sciences at PCOM. I hope to go on to medical school but I'm still deciding on a specialty - currently, I am interested in emergency medicine but I also have interests in neuroscience and psychology. My hobbies include hiking, going to concerts, reading, and occasionally painting.

References

Baum, Jacob, M. (2013). From Incense to Idolatry: The Reformation of Olfaction in Late Medieval German Ritual. The Sixteenth Century Journal, 44(2):323-344.

Chan J.S., van den Bosch J.J., Theves S., Hardt S., Pflanz P., Lötsch J., Kaiser J., Naumer M.J.. Synaesthesia or vivid imagery? A single case fMRI study of visually induced olfactory perception. Multisens Res. 2014;27(3-4):225-46. doi: 10.1163/22134808-00002451. PMID: 25577904.

Chara Jr, P. J., & Gillett, J. N. (2004). Sensory images of God: Divine synesthesia?. Journal of Psychology & Christianity, 23(3).

Coolman B.T. (2004). Knowing God by Experience: The Spiritual Senses in the Theology of William of Auxerre. Catholic University of America Press.

Cytowic, R. (2003). The Man Who Tasted Shapes. Imprint Academic.

Hubbard E.M., & Ramachandran V.S. (2005). Neurocognitive Mechanisms of Synesthesia. Neuron, 48, 509-520.

Martino, G., & Marks, L. E. (2001). Synesthesia: Strong and Weak. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10(2), 61–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00116

New American Bible. (2020). Bloomsbury T&T Clark. https://www-theologyandreligiononline-com.ezp.scranton.edu/monograph?docid=b-9780567701145 

Pelphrey K.A. (2013). Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent (BOLD) Signal. In: Volkmar F.R. (eds). Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Springer, New York, NY. https:doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1698-3_550.

The REL Show. (2016, March 11). Living with Synesthesia [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnfZYGWnmKM&t=21s

Seaberg, Maureen. (2013). Synesthesia's Links to the Mystical. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/sensorium/201301/synesthesias-links-the-mystical-0

Sparre S.L. & Galal L.P. (2018). Incense and holy bread: the sense of belonging through ritual among Middle Eastern Christians in Denmark. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(16): 2649-2666.

TedxTalks. (2020, February 13), How to Lovingly Hack Your Brain | Ariel Bloomer [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QGOTsH2XzT4

Thurkill, Mary. (2009). Odors of Sanctity: Distinctions of the Holy In Early Christianity and Islam. Comparative Islamic Studies.

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Created with images by Sergey Nivens - "Creative thinking" • acekreations - "coffee beans mug" • ReadyElements - "abc alphabet alphabet letter" • geralt - "neurons brain cells brain structure" • jeffjacobs1990 - "jesus god holy spirit" • Mikes-Photography - "religious carvings ancient" • JSirlin - "Haboob dust storm in the Arizona desert." • Griesshammer - "incense avengers censer" • realstock1 - "The man stands on bright shimmering particles background"