Introduction
A Prisoner of War
A prisoner of war (POW) is defined as a member of an armed force that has been captured or held by an opposing force. From the Revolutionary War to modern day conflicts, well over half a million Americans have been taken prisoner. The majority of these POWs were captured during the Civil War (including both Union and Confederate soldiers) and is followed next in number by World War II with more than 120,000 POWs.
The definition, rights, and treatment of POWs were first outlined internationally in the Geneva Convention on prisoners of war in 1929 (signed on July 27, 1929). This was updated by the third Geneva Convention in 1949. This document remains the current protector of POWs around the globe. It dictates that the only information a POW must provide to their captors is their name, serial number, and date of birth, and it protects them against torture and undue treatment. Despite this however, in times of war neglection of this agreement regarding POWs was not uncommon.
The conditions and circumstances American prisoners of war were faced with were often brutal at best and would be carried with them throughout their entire lives. They were neglected, abused, starved, isolated, tortured, mistreated, manipulated, and even executed. More than 142,000 American personnel were captured and imprisoned from the onset of World War I to the end of the Vietnam War, and while imprisonment may have physically ended at a POW's liberation or release, the memories of horror and hardships would not end.
While some wished to share their experiences as a POW, many simply wished to forget them. Because of this, the experiences of prisoners of war and the importance of their resilience can easily be misunderstood and forgotten.
Scope & Purpose
The purpose of this project is to inform on the American prisoner of war experience and to honor the diverse and remarkable veterans who are buried in our national cemeteries by highlighting and sharing their individual stories. This project presents only a small handful of the POW Veterans that are buried in VA national cemeteries, but hopes that all the sacrifices, courage, and sufferings POWs experienced are illustrated through the stories of those presented. The time frame of this project covers the United States' engagement in major foreign wars of the 20th Century - beginning with World War I and ending with the Vietnam War.
Note on Dates, Visuals, and Statistics
All references made to the beginning and/or end of wars, unless otherwise stated, refer to the date at which the United States entered into or exited the conflict (Ex. World War II, 1941 -1945 rather than World War II, 1939 - 1945). All images, films, audio, and sources used and referenced in this project are unrestricted and publicly accessible. All statistics regarding the capture, release, or death of American prisoners of war comes from the Department of Veterans Affairs' April 2005 publication: American Prisoners of War (POW) and Missing In Action (MIA).
POWs in The Great War
While World War I had been raging in Europe since 1914, American troops did not arrive on the continent to face the conflict until June of 1917, two months after Congress’ declaration of war. It took several more months before the American Expeditionary Forces was fully assembled. The first American prisoners of war were captured by German forces during a raid on the night of November 2, 1917 in France.
Germany held American prisoners and prisoner camps throughout Germany, Prussia, Bavaria, and France. Medical attention was often promptly given - though common camp conditions often included forced hard labor, lack of sufficiently warm clothing or materials in winter months, continual food deficiency, and exposure to the elements or foul quarters. The arrival of Red Cross parcels to American prisoners began in early 1918 and aided these ills - if only briefly. The majority of American POWs eventually ended up at Rastatt prison camp (located in Baden Germany) during the Armistice.
Following the Armistice on November 11, 1918, POWs were slowly liberated from their imprisonment - with Americans being liberated, receiving medical treatment if necessary, and returning home into March of 1919. Of over 4,000 captured American POWs approximately 147 died while imprisoned.
1st Lieutenant Howard William Verwohlt
Howard Verwohlt from Tiltionsville, Ohio, enlisted in the second Officers' Reserve Corp during the onset of World War I. Verwohlt trained at Forts Myer (Arlington, VA) and Monroe (Hampton, VA) before being deployed overseas on December 12, 1917, as an observer with the 91st Aero Squadron.
Verwohlt and the 91st Aero Squadron in France. First scene: dog jumps up on Verwohlt’s chest. Second scene: Verwohlt is sixth in the line. National Archives & Records Administration.
On Sept 7, 1918, Verwohlt and pilot Lt. A. W. Lawson were assigned on a photographic mission to observe a section of railroad approximately 25 miles into German occupied territory. During the mission, German planes came from behind and opened fire. Verwohlt was shot in the knee as their plane was forced down.
After being forced down, Verwohlt was soon met by his captors who escorted him via ambulance to a hospital near Mars la tour, France. Verwohlt was unable to get proper medical attention though as the hospital was soon evacuated due to the St. Mihiel Offense and increasing Allied shelling. He was transferred and evacuated to and from hospital camps twice more until his leg wound became untreatable and required amputation just days before the armistice. Several days later and suffering from an infection, Verwohlt was liberated and taken into the care of the U.S 28th Evacuation Hospital.
Verwohlt returned to the United States on February 19, 1919 and remained in the Army for one more year before being honorably discharged on February 21, 1920.
He died on September 25, 1970 and is buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery, Texas (Section Y Site 437).
Private Clyde Irving Grimsley
Clyde Grimsley, an accomplished cornetist from Stockton, Kansas, enlisted in 1917 as a commissioned band leader. With the onset of World War I however, Grimsley quickly requested a transfer to the infantry with the hopes of joining the action in France. He was deployed soon after with Company F of the 16th Infantry Regiment, First Infantry Division.
On the night of November 2, 1917, Company F held off a night raid from German forces at Bathlémont, France, and sustained the first American combat casualties of the War. During the raid, Grimsley was captured and became one of the first American prisoners of war in the conflict.
Grimsley was taken to Tuchel Prison Camp (West Prussia) after spending 30 days confined at Metz (in German occupied France). During his first three months in the camp, Grimsley contracted tonsillitis and bronchitis and was admitted to the camp hospital. After a five-week recovery he took on the role of orderly, assisting two American doctors in the camp. Despite his grueling experiences, he did not neglect his musical talents while imprisoned. He played concerts in the camps and provided music at the funeral of an American prisoner.
Grimsley was transferred among various prison camps until he was freed from the Rastatt prison camp (Baden, Germany) in December of 1918. He returned home three months later on February 19, 1919.
Following the war, Pvt. Clyde Irving Grimsley returned and married his fiancée, Mary Crandall. Grimsley died in 1967 and is interred in Fort Logan National Cemetery, Colorado, (Section P Site 1389).
Private Willis E. Snowman
Following the United States' entrance into World War I, Willis E. Snowman enlisted himself and his driving skills in the United States Ambulance Service in the summer of 1917. A chauffeur by trade, Snowman became part of the 594th Ambulance Company, and sailed for the Front on August 6, 1917.
Upon arrival, Snowman was headquartered in Gury, France and assigned to assist French forces in the Somme along a 60-mile line of battle front. In early June of 1918, Snowman parked his ambulance and took cover with a group of French soldiers in a foxhole as they anticipated a German attack. The attack soon came, and their foxhole was overcome; all were taken prisoner.
Upon capture, Snowman was brought to Tuchel prison camp (West Prussia) before being transferred to Rastatt Prison Camp (Baden, Germany). Snowman remained at Rastatt until he was liberated six months later.
Upon return to the United States, Snowman resumed his position as a private chauffeur - returning to Europe and the area of his capture to drive his clients during their travels as part of his duties. He traveled France, Belgium, and Italy as well as into Africa - touring Morocco and Algeria.
Snowman's experience as a prisoner of war vibrantly remained with him throughout his life as he often spoke of his imprisonment and military service at community functions, on local radio, and to the Youth Red Cross. Later in life, Snowman severed as the custodian of the J. Calvin Lauderbach School.
Snowman died on April 28, 1983 and is buried in Los Angeles National Cemetery (Section C-408 Site 64).
Sergeant Edgar M. Halyburton
Edgar Halyburton, of Stoney Point, North Carolina, enlisted in the U.S Army in 1909 and served in Mexico during the Punitive Expedition against Pancho Villa (1916-1917). He was deployed to France shortly after the beginning of World War I. Also from Company F of the 16th Infantry Regiment, First Infantry Division, Halyburton was captured on November 2, 1918, alongside Private Clyde Grimsley and taken to Tuchel Prison Camp (West Prussia).
At Truchel, Halyburton was faced with lack of food and clothing and forced into heavy labor; tasked with harvesting lumber and carting wood miles to camp throughout the winter. Seeking to improve camp conditions for himself and fellow prisoners, Halyburton began sending postcards to the Red Cross asking for parcels (which included food) to be sent to the camp so that those imprisoned could be sustained throughout the winter. Four months later, Red Cross parcels were finally received.
After seven months, Halyburton was transferred from Tuchel to Rastatt Prison Camp (Baden, Germany). At Rastatt, he made it his mission to establish a sense of order in the camp and eliminate German propaganda from influencing the morale and loyalty of American prisoners. Halyburton was elected by his fellow prisoners of war as their camp commander to attain this mission. He established a firm camp structure that assured each man had a job and handpicked an intelligence staff to monitor the effectiveness of German propaganda on POWs. Because of his work, Halyburton was officially recognized as the leader of all present and incoming Americans in the camp by his German captors.
Halyburton was liberated in December of 1918, and for his leadership while imprisoned, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal – becoming one of the first enlisted men to receive the honor.
Following a distinguished Army career, Sgt. Edgar M. Halyburton went on to write about his experiences as a prisoner of war in his 1932 book, Shoot and be Dammed. Halyburton died in 1945 and is interred in Los Angeles National Cemetery (Section 190 Row C Site 15).
Prisoners of the Second World War
World War II represented a high-water mark for American POWs in modern warfare in terms of number imprisoned and fatalities in confinement. American POWs were imprisoned throughout France, Germany, Poland, Italy, Romania, Austria, Japan, and the Philippines - the length of imprisonment ranging from less than a month to the entire war. The situations and experiences POWs faced were highly dependent on their theater of service.
In the European theater, captured Americans were transported into an extensive and elaborate web of camps, with separate camps for interrogation, transit, holding, and long-term imprisonment. For each of these camps, it would be further broken down into separate camps for different allies and type of service (such as for airmen and infantry). Each held vastly varying conditions and hardships (from respectful treatment, aid from guards or civilians, and access to communication to the other end of isolation, civilian brutality, forced labor, and execution). Those imprisoned in the Pacific faced much worse experiences than those in Europe: torture, starvation, purposeless execution, slave labor, cruelty, phycological abuse, and more. Of all the American POWs captured and imprisoned by Japanese forces, almost 40% died in the hands of their captors.
The majority of POW camps in Europe were located in or around Germany. As Allied forces pushed back Axis forces towards the end of the war, Germany uprooted and moved its POW camps back to territory they held. Prisoners were marched or transported by rail to the new camps. Liberation of POW camps occurred as they were reached during the Allies' drive into Germany. The last American POWs in Europe were liberated in May of 1945. Prisoner of war camps in the Pacific were often remotely and obscurely located throughout Japan and the Philippines, proving difficult for immediate liberation for smaller camps. At the time of Japan's surrender, only a small portion of POWs had already been liberated - leaving many now free from their oppressors but still unable to leave. To address the issue, in the following months (from August 1945 to September 1945) supplies were delivered by air to POW camps until Allied forces could reach the camps.
The Palawan Massacre
On Palawan Island in the Philippines, Prisoner of War Camp 10-A, known as the Puerto Princesa prisoner camp, became the site of one of the most gruesome massacres of American POWs.
In the early morning of December 14, 1944, a false air raid alarm sounded, and Japanese guards forced some 150 American prisoners into three palm branch covered trenches that served as the prisoners’ air raid shelters. It was the last effort to eliminate all possibility of the prisoners' rescue. With the Americans trapped in their trenches, the guards proceeded to soak them in gasoline and set them ablaze. Attempting to escape the flames, the prisoners began to break out of the trenches. They were instantly met with machine gun fire.
Only eleven men managed to escape their captors through an abandoned escape tunnel to the beach and a broken section of fence off one of the trenches. For the rest of the prisoners, those who did not burn alive, were shot. The accounts of the horror from the survivors brought awareness to the brutality POWs suffered at the hands of the Japanese and prompted the United States to begin carrying out rescue missions for its imprisoned soldiers in the final year of the war.
After the camp was liberated two months later, the charred remains of 123 American POWs who perished in the massacre were excavated from the burnt-out trenches. All were repatriated and interred in a mass grave at Jefferson Barracks National Cemetery (Section 85 Site 14-66). Inscribed on the headstone are the names of all 123 individuals accompanied by a plaque detailing the ordeal they suffered.
Lieutenant Frank Paisano Jr.
Frank Paisano, of New Mexico and Native American heritage, enlisted in the Army Air Corp during his junior year of college on January 14, 1942 and joined the 527th Bomb Squadron of the 379th Bomb Group as a bombardier.
On January 29, 1944, Paisano and his crew left Kimbolton, England on their 21st mission: a bombing run to Frankfurt, Germany. During the mission, their engine began leaking oil and Near Prüm, Germany, the engine gave out. The crew bailed out over Belgium before the plane crashed. In the midst of seeking cover after reaching the ground, Paisano ran into locals who aided him and hid him in a barn for several days - where he was reunited with several of his crew members. In the following days, he was driven to Liège by locals in effort to conceal him from German forces and help him escape back to England.
Paisano continued to evade capture for several months until he was apprehended by German forces in the spring of 1944. Following capture and interrogation, Paisano was transferred to Stalag VII-A in Moosburg, Germany.
During his imprisonment, Paisano was awarded the Air Medal with oak leaf clusters which was accepted by his wife on his behalf in a ceremony on February 4, 1945; two months before Paisano's liberation on April 29, 1945.
Paisano returned to the United States several weeks after liberation and was discharged on June 7, 1945. On August 14, 1968, Paisano was the victim of a hit and run and was interred in Santa Fe National Cemetery (Section V Site 1280).
The Bataan Death March
On April 9, 1942, the peninsula of Bataan in the Philippines (located just west of Manilla across Manilla Bay) fell to Japanese forces. The next day, April 10, marked the start of the brutal journey of some 12,000 American and over 60,000 Filipino prisoners of war on what has become known as the Bataan Death March.
Starting from Mariveles, Japanese forcibly marched their POWs approximately 65 miles up the east coast of Bataan to San Fernando where they were shoved into crowded box cars like livestock (over a hundred POWs per car and allowing heat exhaustion and suffocation to run rampant - killing many of the already weakened men). Failure or inability to march resulted in the prisoner's execution. Abuse and purposeless death were horrifyingly common - the POWs were beaten, bayoneted, run over or dragged by vehicles, and shot. Practically no nourishment was given to the prisoners and punishment of even trying to receive extra provisions (from soldiers or civilians) resulted in death.
Among these POWs was Private Samuel Stenzler of the 31st Infantry Regiment. A native of New York, Stenzler enlisted in the United States Army on February 27, 1940. Stenzler died during the Bataan Death March on May 27, 1942.
In the years following the end of the war, Stenzler remains were identified and repatriated, along with hundreds of other American prisoners of war, to the United States. In October of 1949, Stenzler finally returned to the United States and on October 18, 1949 was interred in Long Island National Cemetery (Section H Site 9577).
Lieutenant Commander Susie Josephine Pitcher
Susie Pitcher enlisted in the United States Navy Nurse Corps on September 28, 1929. From Des Moines, Iowa, Pitcher was stationed at the Great Lakes Naval Training Center prior to being deployed to the Canacao Naval Hospital near Manila, Philippines, in fall of 1941 just before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor Naval Base and American entrance into the war.
On December 8, bombardment of the Philippines began, and Pitcher became swamped in her duties of treating injured military personnel. The next day, the medical personnel of Canacao transferred the patients to Sternberg Army Hospital to escape the increasing bombing. At the end of the month, Manila fell to Japanese forces.
On January 6, 1942, along with ten other Navy nurses stationed in Manila, Pitcher volunteered to be taken to the Sano Tomás civilian internment camp in March, 1942, so that she could continue her nursing duties. The following year, Pitcher was transferred to Los Banos prison camp.
After being transferred, Pitcher and the other Navy nurses quickly scheduled nursing shifts and established a productive infirmary at the prison camp with almost no medical supplies - using bamboo rods for splints and old sheets for bandages. They continued in this manner for two years, withstanding lack of food and unsanitary conditions, until Los Banos was liberated in February of 1945.
Immediately upon liberation, Pitcher continued the nursing duties she never neglected by transferring to Santo Tomas University Hospital to assist with the overabundance of patients that resulted from the liberation of the Philippines while she awaited further orders. The following month, Pitcher was ordered home and returned to the United States on March 7, 1945.
Following the end of World War II, Pitcher, along with the other ten captured nurses, were awarded the Bronze Star. Pitcher retired from the Navy on May 1, 1946.
Following a battle with leukemia, Pitcher died on December 31, 1951 and is buried in Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery (Section J Site 279).
Sergeant Larry Robert Sandoval
From Albuquerque, New Mexico, Larry Sandoval enlisted on January 6, 1941 and was assigned to the 515th Coast Artillery Regiment of the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps.
At the start of the war, Sandoval was deployed to the Philippines. During of the Fall of Bataan, Sandoval was captured on May 7, 1942 by Japanese forces and he was transferred to Fukuoka POW Camp #1 (known as the Pine Tree Camp) on Kyushu Island. Shortly after being captured, Sandoval was placed into forced labor in a Japanese coal mine. One day while laboring, an explosion occurred at the mine and Sandoval's right leg was shattered in the explosion. As consequence, the leg was promptly amputated.
In August of 1944, Sandoval was permitted to record a short message saying he was well that would be broadcasted via shortwave radio. Fukuoka POW Camp #1 was liberated in early September of 1945 marking the end of Sandoval's three-and-a-half-year horrific imprisonment. Sandoval promptly returned to the United States after liberation.
Sandoval being filmed a few days following his release on September 16, 1945. National Archives & Records Administration.
Shortly after returning home, Sandoval married Leonella Gutierrez in November of 1945. He was formally discharged on March 28, 1946. Throughout his life, he remained involved in the American Ex-Prisoners of War as well as Disabled American Veterans. Sandoval died in 2007 and is buried in Santa Fe National Cemetery (Section 13 Site 57).
Major Corbin Burkam Willis
Corbin Willis enlisted in the United States Army Air Force on January 20, 1941. During World War II, Willis served on a B-17 as a co-pilot in the 486th Bombardment Group 832nd Bomb Squadron.
On his 22nd mission Willis was shot down during a strategic bombing run to Düsseldorf, Germany on November 2, 1944. Upon bailing out, Willis was captured by German forces and brought to the main interrogation center for Allied airmen, Auswertestelle West, near Frankfurt, Germany. After being held and interrogated for several days, Willis was transferred and held at Stalag Luft III near Sagan in Silesia, Bavaria, Germany (now Poland). Willis remained at Stalag Luft III for two months and became involved with the camp's prisoner run events and activities. Willis aided in escape plans along with many other POWs by saving food for willing escapees and redistributing dirt around the camp that was dug from tunnels. In addition, Willis participated in the camp's bridge tournaments and began an unplanned foraging lesson when searching the camp for extra meals.
Following the fast approach of Russian forces, on January 27, 1945, Stalag Luft III was evacuated causing Willis and fellow prisoners to be marched and transferred some 600km on a harrowing journey to Stalag VII-A in Moosburg, Germany. Here, Willis and fellow POWs were met with grim and cramped conditions - prisoners being crowded four to a bunk in confining barracks. It was secret radios that provided news of the Allied advance that provided hope to the prisoners. Willis remained in Stalag VII-A until it was liberated by American Forces on April 29, 1945. At liberation, a camp originally intended to hold only around 10,000 captives held approximately 80,000 POWs.
After returning back to the United States, Willis remained in the military, serving in the U.S Air Force during the Korean War. Willis died in 2013 and is interred in Willamette National Cemetery (Section Y Site 1676).
Prisoners of the Korean War
The Korean War resulted in the brutal treatment of thousands of American POWs and is marked the deadliest for its POWs. In total, more than a third of all Americans captured during the war would die in imprisonment.
The first year of the war (1950) was responsible for the imprisonment of the majority of American POWs due to the swift offensives of North Korean and Chinese forces. The enemy forces would gain a small section of territory and take prisoners before they were met or pushed back. Due to swift battles and combat engagements, many POWs were labeled Missing-in-Action (MIA) for months, if not years, as the circumstance of their fate would be left to deduction until when or if North Korean forces would confirm their capture. The captured were spread across some fifteen prison and transit camps across North Korea: some just a short distance from Allied lines. When POWs were captured in large numbers, they were often forced on death marches to reach their permanent holding camps. Upon arrival to the camps, the POWs were beaten, starved, isolated, deprived of medical treatment, exploited, and were given no defenses to winter weather. Violence and death became daily occurrences.
The first group of POWs to be liberated occurred as part of Operation Little Switch and included the exchange of wounded or ill prisoner from both sides of the war in Spring of 1953. The remaining POWs were freed in Fall of 1953 in the operation's successor, Operation Big Switch.
The Unaccounted For
Throughout the Korean War (and also in the Vietnam War), the status of casualties could often be unclear. When servicemen were unable to be accounted for following battles or plane crashes, they were often given the vague categorization of MIA until details of their fate became clear. More often than not, these MIA would be found to have been killed in the line of duty. However, some would later be discovered to be POWs since confirmation of their capture would not always be immediately declared by their captors - waiting months if not years before releasing their names. Hope that the MIA would be discovered alive would always remain, though if a year had passed with no further information, they would often be assumed dead. Because of their indefinite fates and isolated presence, POWs and those who are MIA are often grouped together.
Captain Troy Gordon Cope, of Norfolk, Arkansas, enlisted in the United States Army Air Force during World War II in November of 1943. After training at Moore Field, Texas, he served as a fighter pilot throughout the war. At the end of his tour of duty, Cope reenlisted on June 29, 1946, and became part of the newest U.S military branch, the United States Air Force.
Cope was deployed to Korea after the outbreak of the war. On September 16, 1952, Cope departed in his F-86 as part of a fighter sweep operation along the Yalu River in northeast China (formerly Manchuria). During the mission, Cope and a fellow pilot flew south alongside the Yalu when they were accosted by enemy aircraft. After a short radio exchange, the two were forced to separate and Cope's plane disappeared south of Dandong, China, just across the Yalu from North Korea. An aerial search was conducted of the area though yielded no leads. With no sign of a crash site, he was believed to have been taken prisoner. Without any confirmation of capture from enemy forces though, Cope was classified as Missing in Action. At the end of the war, with no additional or further intelligence of his whereabouts, he was presumed dead.
Details of Cope's fate continued to remain unknown until 1995 when his dog tags were discovered in a local Chinese museum. After years of diplomatic correspondence and military investigation, a ground search was conducted of the surrounding area where the dog tags had been discovered. Fifty-two years after Cope disappeared, his plane was found. When human remains were found near the crash site, the events surrounding his disappearance fell into place. Cope had not been taken prisoner as initially thought but died when his plane crashed into a thickly vegetated area.
In 2004, Cope was repatriated after his remains had officially been identified. The following year, he was interred at Dallas-Fort Worth National Cemetery (Section 76 Site 1542).
Major General William Frisch Dean
Wanting to participate in the fight during the outbreak of World War I but unable to due to his age, William Dean, of Carlyle, Illinois, began his military career in the Student Army Training Corps at University of Berkley California in 1918. He graduated in 1922, and a year later in 1923, he was commissioned as a 2nd lieutenant in the United States Army. He was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in 1940 and four years later in 1944 he was granted the commission of assistant commander of the 44th Infantry Division in Europe. He later assumed command of the 44th Division after its commanding general became unable to return to Europe. In 1947, Dean was appointed a military governor in Korea and deputy commander of U.S. forces in Korea. When the new Korean government was elected the following year, it eliminated the need for U.S occupation and Dean was transferred to commander of the 7th Infantry Division and eventually the 24th Infantry Division after its commanding general had also been transferred to a different position.
On July 20, 1950, the 24th Division sustained an attack from the North Korean People’s Army (NKPA) at Taejon, Korea (approximately 100 miles south of Seoul) and was forced to withdraw. After traveling on foot that night, Dean left the group of soldiers he was with to gather water for the wounded. While trying to reach water in a ravine, Dean fell and was knocked unconscious. He suffered a broken shoulder and severe gash on his head.
Dean awoke the next morning and hid among bushes to avoid being detected by North Korean forces; traveling at night in an attempt to reach American lines. He was aided by friendly locals for weeks – narrowly escaping capture when the NKPA surrounded a local’s home he had been given refuge in. The enemy eventually caught up, however, and Dean was captured on August 25, 1950, after being turned in by two locals. He was marched through Seoul and taken to a prisoner camp near Pyongyang, North Korea.
During his imprisonment, Dean was continually interrogated – often being threatened with torture, mutilation, or death if he would not provide information to his captors. He was isolated and attempted escape on multiple occasions though was unable to carry them out due to illness. It would only be after a year of imprisonment that the North Korean authorities finally stated that Dean was captured, and his status of MIA was changed to POW. Dean remained a prisoner for three years until Operation Big Switch. He was released on September 4, 1953 and was the highest-ranking American POW of the war. Unbeknownst to him, Dean was awarded the Medal of Honor during his imprisonment for his actions in July of 1950.
Interview with Dean following his release. National Archives & Records Administration.
In 1954, Dean published General Dean’s Story that detailed his experiences as a POW. After 53 years in military service, Dean retired from the Army in 1955. He died on August 24, 1981 and is buried in San Francisco National Cemetery (Section GHT Site 353-B).
Corporal Benito J. Anguino
Benito Anguino, a native of Pacoima, California, enlisted in the United States Army in 1948 at the age of 17. He was deployed to Japan two years later in 1950 as part of the 1st Calvary Division before being transferred four months later to the 34th Infantry Regiment in order to build up the 24th Division. Upon arrival just north of Korea, Anguino became a heavy weapons squad leader.
On June 25, 1950, the 24th Division was sent to meet the North Korean advance with the mission of holding them back until American reinforcements could arrive. Two weeks later on July 8, 1950, Anguino's unit arrived at Osan, South Korea, and was engaged in combat. The 34th Infantry was ordered to withdraw, and Anguino's squad was chosen to cover the retreat. Shortly after, his squad became cut-off from the rest of the unit. In order to protect themselves, Anguino led the squad through rice patties and across the Han River south of Seoul in order to escape the heavy firing that began with the retreat.
Across the river, the squad took shelter in a abandoned hut but were quickly surrounded by North Korean forces. The Americans fought until they used the last of their ammunition then agreed the best course of action and chance at life would be to surrender. Anguino and his squad were captured and bound immediately, and one squad member was shot because he had been wounded in the arm during the fighting.
They were marched some 100 miles north to Changsong POW camp, North Korea, as part of the Tiger Death March (a brutal 9-day march approximately 120 miles long led by a Major Chong Myong Sil with a particular dislike for Americans. Approximately one out of every nine died on the march). Upon arrival at the camp, the conditions were no less grim. At Changsong, Anguino and fellow POWs were starved, exposed to frigid winter temperatures, and refused any form of medical treatment or first aid. Each new day brought death and the bodies would be piled until they would be buried at the end of the week. It was estimated that only one in four POWs imprisoned in Changsong would survive.
After three years of imprisonment, Anguino was marched south at the end of the war to be exchanged with North Korean POWs as part of Operation Big Switch. Anguino was released on August 28, 1953.
Anguino returned back to the United States in September of 1953. He died in 2017 and is buried in Fort Gibson National Cemetery (Section 23A Site 15).
Corporal Dominic J. Cantillo
Dominic Cantillo, of Roxbury, Massachusetts entered into the United States Navy during World War II and served in the Atlantic Theater. After his tour of duty ended, Cantillo returned home in 1946 and, unable to find a job, enlisted in the United States Army two years later in 1948; being stationed at Fort Devens. In August of 1950, Cantillo was deployed to Korea to serve as a combat construction specialist with the 1st Calvary Regiment.
Soon after arrival in Korea, Cantillo became part of the Battle of Unsan (located in North Korea), and on November 2, 1950, Cantillo was captured during combat. He was taken to Pyoktong Prison Camp No. 5 located just outside of Pyoktong, North Korea (near the North Korea-China border).
At Pyoktong, beatings, manipulation, food scarcity, and solitary confinement were commonplace. In 1952, after several fellow POWs stole food, Cantillo was dragged out of the camp by prison officials and beaten until he confessed to planning the stealing of the provisions. After the beating, he was placed into solitary confinement for almost two weeks and was forced to sit at attention the entire day in a tiny mud hut that served as his confinement quarters. Cantillo was only released on condition of signing a confession of whatever his captors believed him guilty of and promising to obey their orders and teachings.
On August 11, 1953, Cantillo was freed as part of Operation Big Switch after being a POW for 33 months. The year following his release, Cantillo was involved in the court martial trail of Edward Dickenson. Cantillo testified of Dickenson’s betrayal of himself and their fellow POWs to their captors – Dickenson had informed on them (for stealing potatoes, etc.) and threatened them to sign peace pacts and denounce U.S presence in Korea.
Cantillo returned to the United States in September of 1953 to a massive welcoming party of friends, family, and community members. He died on January 6, 1997 and is buried in Massachusetts National Cemetery (Section 10 Site 210).
Prisoners of War in Vietnam
The Vietnam War created unprecedented circumstances for American POWs. The majority of POWs were officers (unlike the majority being enlisted men as in previous wars), and most were aviators belonging to the Air Force and Navy.
Treatment of American POWs by North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces during the Vietnam War proved especially brutal. Most prison camps were located in or surrounding Hanoi (in northcentral Vietnam) and each held its own nickname given by those imprisoned within them - including the "Hanoi Hilton" (Hoa Lo Prison Camp), "Skid Row" (Ban Liet Prison Camp), or "Rockpile" (Noi Coc Prison Camp). Conditions at each camp varied, though torture was routine at each - including forced contortions using rope, hanging POWs from limbs for hours on end, and severe beatings with fan belts. At first, the discussion of American POWs in Vietnam was kept quiet to the public. This was done in fear that the POWs may be treated worse or ultimately executed if any information reached North Vietnam that was thought could be used as leverage against the POWs. This belief later changed however and resulted in a significate improvement to POW treatment. In addition to this, POWs noted the decrease in torture and beatings as well as the increase of food rations following the death of Ho Chi Minh (President of North Vietnam) in 1969. These elements contributed to noticeable and large change in American POW treatment in Vietnam.
American POWs began to be released and exchanged following the end of the war (on January 27, 1973) as part of Operation Homecoming, which ran from February to April of 1973. The average length of imprisonment American POWs faced in Vietnam surpassed all previous wars - often extending beyond six to seven years, with one POW being imprisoned for just under nine years. In total, one out of every eleven POWs would not return home.
Colonel Armand Jesse Myers
Armand Myers of Eugene, Oregon, enlisted in the United States Air Force on June 24, 1954 after completing a bachelor's degree in philosophy. He trained at Laredo, Hondo, and Perrin Air Force Bases. After completing his training, Myers was stationed at McGuire, England, Clark, and George Air Force Bases (in New Jersey, Florida, the Philippines, and California respectively). After over a decade of service and with the rank of captain, Myers was deployed to Vietnam on November 8, 1965.
Myers flew 94 missions throughout North Vietnam and Laos. On June 1, 1966, while flying with the 433rd Tactical Fighter Squadron, Myers departed in his F-4C for his 95th mission. Just northeast of Hanoi, Myers was shot down by enemy forces.
Myers ejected just above the ground before his plane crashed. He immediately sought to find cover but upon trying to get up, he realized he suffered a broken and contorted leg and ankle upon impact. His next instinct was to radio his location to his base and while pulling it from his survival kit, he was captured.
Upon capture, Myers was denied medical attention for his injures and deprived of food and water. He was tortured several days later - handcuffs tightened to cut-off blood circulation and arms and elbows forced to contort with the use of rope. Myer's first week as a POW provided a glimpse of what his experiences would entail. Throughout his imprisonment, he was repeatedly tortured, placed in lengthy periods of solitary confinement, and deprived of basic needs - Myers would never receive treatment during his imprisonment for his injuries and remained on crutches for almost a year before he was able to walk due to his ankle which had improperly set at an off centered angle.
Myers was a POW for more than six and a half years until he was released on February 12, 1973, as part of Operation Homecoming. Four days later, Myers arrived back in the United States at Kelly Air Force Base on February 16, 1973. Shortly after, he underwent treatment at Wilford Hall Medical Center to reset his ankle that had healed improperly. He returned to a nation of ecstatic well-wishers celebrating the return of the American POWs. Myers participated in countless interviews as well as a presidential dinner. His only desire though, was to spend time with his wife and son whom he had not seen in seven and a half years.
Myers remained in the Air Force for ten more years, being promoted to the rank of Colonel after he attended Air War College during which he wrote multiple publications regarding the Prisoner of War experience - including Vietnam POW Camp Histories and Studies (1974) and POW (Prisoners of War) Doctrine for Survival with Honor (1975). Myers retired from the Air Force on July 31, 1983. He died on March 27, 2002 and is buried in Eagle Point National Cemetery (Section 21 Site 290).
Brigadier General George Everette Day
George "Bud" Day of Sioux City, Iowa, enlisted in the United States Marine Corps in 1942 at the age of 17. He served until his discharge in 1945 after being deployed in the North Pacific on a gun battery located on Johnston Island (approximately 850 miles southwest of Hawaii). After returning to the United States, Day joined the Army Reserve and pursued a bachelor of science and a graduate degree in law from the University of South Dakota in 1949 under the G.I. Bill.
With the onset of the Korean war, Day was commissioned a 2nd lieutenant in the Iowa Air National Guard and was transitioned to active duty with the United States Air Force shortly after in 1951. He served two tours in Northeast Asia in an F-84 followed by several years stationed in England flying fighter planes. In June of 1957, Day's fighter caught fire and he ejected at 500 feet. His parachute failed to open, and he fell through a fir tree but miraculously left the site with only a broken ankle. After almost a decade abroad, Day was reassigned stateside until he was deployed to Vietnam on Easter morning on March 26, 1965.
Day, now a colonel, became the commander of the 416th Tactical Fighter Squadron, Commando Sabre in Vietnam. On August 26, 1967, he left in an F-100 for his 24th FAC mission (FAC: Forward Air Controller mission – reconnaissance flights identifying enemy location and targets) in North Vietnam. His plane was hit by ground fire, and he was forced to eject. Upon reaching the ground, he had suffered a sprained left knee and right arm broken in three places.
Day was immediately captured by the Viet Cong and beaten. While being tortured, Day diligently waited for the opportune moment to escape, and it came five days later. He escaped into the jungle, evading his captors and making his way towards South Vietnam. He traveled some 25 miles, sustaining shrapnel wounds from an exploded bomb and living off frogs and what ever fruit he could find. Two weeks later, and only two miles shy of the Marine base at Con Thien, South Vietnam, Day was once again captured by the Viet Cong. He was shot in his left hand and thigh and severely tortured for his escape and evasion. From this point on he was labeled a 'resister' and was subject to harsher treatment. He was marched to a prison near Vinh, North Vietnam, and was later taken to Hanoi.
Day was imprisoned in Hanoi's notorious prison camps - first in Hai Lo Prison camp (named the Hanoi Hilton by POWs) and then “the Zoo” in 1968 - a prison and punishment center designed for the difficult resisters and often included lengthy beatings with a fan belt. The injuries Day contracted in the first few weeks of his imprisonment never healed properly and his torturers left him with more - including rebreaking his arm.
After five-and-a-half years of imprisonment, Day was released March 14, 1973, following the end of the war. He arrived back in the United States several days later at Clark Air Force Base on March 17, 1973.
Day is often cited as one of the most decorated airmen in Air Force history having been awarded a total of 70 decorations including the Medal of Honor. He retired from active duty in 1976 and retired from the Air Force in 1977 following a 35-year military career. In 1991, Day wrote Return with Honor, a book detailing his experiences as a POW in Vietnam.
Day died on July 27, 2013 and is buried in Barrancas National Cemetery (Section 51, Site 30). Following his death, Day was posthumously promoted to the rank of brigadier general in 2018.
Captain John Bryan McKamey
John McKamey, of Fillmore, Indiana, enlisted in the United States Navy on September 28, 1955, as a naval aviator. He received his wings in March of 1957 and qualified as a carrier pilot seven months later in October of 1957. McKamey was stationed at Moffett Field (California) for several years before being deployed to Vietnam in April of 1965, as a lieutenant.
On June 2, 1965, McKamey took off in his A-4 SkyHawk from the USS Midway (CVA-41) on a reconnaissance mission to North Vietnam. On his return flight McKamey veered slightly off course to investigate what appeared to be a construction site near Vinh, North Vietnam. He was shot down by ground fire and forced to eject. He was captured shortly after and was marched to a holding prison near Hue. McKamey was placed in solitary confinement for more than a week before being transferred to one of Hanoi’s many prison camps. While imprisoned, he was tortured, often to the edge of blacking-out, for any information that may aid the enemy. McKamey would routinely respond to his captors with only his name, serial number, and birthdate.
For nearly five years, McKamey's fate remained unknown, and he was classified as MIA until his name was released by North Vietnamese forces in 1970. After being imprisoned for seven years and eight months, McKamey as released on February 12, 1973. He returned back to the United States on February 14, 1973, at Travis Air Force Base and was taken to Oakland Naval Hospital.
After medical treatment, McKamey, now a commander, returned to active duty for 13 more years – serving in multiple assignments including as the commanding officer of Meridian and Pensacola Naval Air Stations. McKamey retired from the Navy with the rank of captain in 1986 after more than 30 years of service. Following his retirement, McKamey returned to Naval Air Station Pensacola for seven years as its Public Affairs Officer. McKamey died on February 9, 2010 and is interred in Barrancas National Cemetery (Section 53 Site 214).
HONORING OUR POWs
It is exceedingly important that the experiences of our POWs are not forgotten. Their stories and memory are continually recognized and shared through National POW/MIA Recognition Day (which has been celebrated every third Friday of September since 1979), oral histories and personal narratives, and through the monuments and memorials dedicated in their honor.
Prisoner of War Monuments in National Cemeteries
The National Prisoner of War & Missing In Action Memorial
Riverside National Cemetery, Riverside, California
Situated to the East when entering the main gate of Riverside National Cemetery, the nation's largest national cemetery per acreage, is a monument that serves as a powerful reminder and expression of gratitude for the sacrifice made by the missing and prisoners of war. The National POW/MIA memorial honors more than 607,000 POWs and 170,000 MIAs from the Revolutionary War to the present day from all armed services – those who have been recovered and those who still remain missing.
Construction of the memorial began in 2004 with the intention of establishing a national monument specifically dedicated to honoring both the nation’s Prisoners of War and Missing in Action – for which there had previously been none. The memorial’s focus would be an emotional sculpture of a POW commissioned by Lewis Lee Millett, Jr. (a Vietnam War veteran). In honor of those his work commemorates, Millett donated the sculpture and his commission to the construction of the monument. The bronze sculpture depicts an American serviceman, exhausted, bound by captors with arms pinned behind his back by a bamboo rod, and kneeling in agony.
Arranged in a semi-circle around the figure are vertical black marble slabs that convey an overwhelming feeling of imprisonment. On one of the slabs is the inscription that captures the meaning and spirit of the memorial:
“We honor here the sacrifice of hundreds of thousands of Americans held Prisoner of War, and those still listed as Missing in Action since the time of the American Revolution. Some died from disease and starvation, some perished in death marches, some were tortured, and some were lost, gone forever from their families… All were deprived of their liberties so that you may enjoy yours.”
On December 10, 2004, the monument was designated by Congress as a national memorial. The following year on September 16 (national POW/MIA Day) the official dedication of the Prisoner of War & Missing in Action National Memorial took place at Riverside National Cemetery.
The Liberation
Miramar National Cemetery, San Diego, California
Located to the north after entering through the main entrance of Miramar National Cemetery is POW Plaza: a tranquil open bricked area containing several benches, a mounted POW-MIA flag and a special monument dedicated to POWs. The monument is titled “Liberation”, and it seeks to capture the emotions of immense gratitude and overwhelming relief POWs experience at the moment of their liberation. The monument was commissioned by the American Ex-Prisoners of War, San Diego Chapter 1, and donated to the Miramar National Cemetery following the cemetery’s dedication in 2010.
The monument consists of a concrete base beneath a bronze 15 feet tall statue sculpted by local sculptor Richard Becker. The design of the monument was created with a different approach in mind to depicting the American POW: not enduring imprisonment but having endured imprisonment. The statue depicts a malnourished POW with his right arm raised blocking out the sun, looking to the distance at his liberators in both disbelief and ecstatic hope. At his feet are twisted stakes and barbed wire falling away from him, representing the imprisonment that has now been broken. Enclosed within the base of the monument is a time capsule, to be opened in 2045, that contains the first-hand accounts of POWs from the surrounding area. On the front of the base, is a plaque that captures the full meaning of the monument. It reads:
"This statue conveys the excitement, trepidation, exhilaration and emotion of the LIBERATION moment, as the emaciated soldier steps out of the darkness into the “Sunshine of Freedom.” He portrays the hundreds of thousands who were bound in captivity by the infamy of foreign enemies. This is to stand as an eternal legacy for our community by reminding visitors of the sacrifice of veterans during America’s efforts to keep alive the hopes and dreams of freedom for the oppressed around the world."
The Liberation monument was dedicated at Miramar National Cemetery on National POW/MIA day on September 16, 2011.
There are numerous other monuments located within national cemeteries dedicated to POWs and they may be viewed here: List of NCA Monuments.
REFLECTION & CONCLUSION
No history can truly convey all that has been endured, experienced, suffered, and overcome by our nation’s Prisoners of War. They have been abused, separated from their families, neglected, and misunderstood. Through it, they diligently kept their faith in each other and in their country. Only a small sampling of all these courageous POW Veterans that are buried in our national cemeteries has been presented, though it is the hope of this project that an understanding and deep appreciation of the Prisoner of War experience has been gained.
“Our prisoners of war have been and are the bravest of the brave. They kept a trusting heart, they retained their spirit and their will, and they kept the faith…We honor you, and that honor is unending.” – Ronald Reagan July 20, 1984.
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Note on Repatriation
Previous research has been completed on World War II repatriation to VA-managed national cemeteries; this includes and addresses many prisoners of war who died during their imprisonment. This research can be viewed here: "Return of the Dead" Repatriation After WWII & America's World War II Burial Program.
Note on Representation
The author entered this project with no specific POWs targeted to profile. Selections were made at random from official lists of American POWs; the criteria for selection being burial in a national cemetery with readily available biographical information.
Resources & Further Information
The Department of Veterans Affairs home page.
The National Cemetery Administration home page.
List of National Cemeteries maintained by NCA.
The Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency home page.
The Geneva Convention (III) of 1949
History and Information of the POW/MIA Flag.
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Credits, References & Works Cited
Author: Nalia Warmack, National Cemetery Administration History Intern, Oregon State University.
Headstone pictures courtesy of the National Cemetery Administration.
Special thanks to Dr. Richard Hulver, NCA Historian, supervisor and mentor of this project.
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- - - Thank you to all who have served - - -