INTRODUCTION TO THE ONLINE EXHIBIT
During the War of 1812, a fort was built by Black British Colonial Marines and Indigenous people along the Apalachicola River. Called “Negro Fort” by American officials, it became the center of the largest free Black settlement in what is now the United States. When the war ended, the U.S. believed the fort threatened the institution of slavery and must be destroyed. To the Maroon people who lived there, however, the fort at Prospect Bluff was a beacon of freedom worth fighting for. Archaeology has the power to give voices to the freedom seekers through the artifacts they left behind. Throughout this online exhibit, please explore the 3D models of the objects that help tell the more complete story of the Maroon Marines and the community they fought to protect.
WHO WERE MAROONS?
Maroons were formerly enslaved people of African ancestry who freed themselves. They often established communities beyond the control of their enslavers and intermixed with Indigenous people. Maroon communities existed throughout the Americas and Caribbean. They formed their own distinct cultural societies and resisted enslavement.
There were a number of Maroon settlements throughout Florida' s Gulf Coast in the early 19th century. This sketch shows a few communities along the Suwanee River in the early 1800s. Map courtesy of New College of Florida.
Maroon communities armed themselves not only to self emancipate, but also to fight for the freedom of other enslaved people. This melted lead shot was recovered from the site of Prospect Bluff. The Maroon Marines were armed with hundreds of rifles that fired lead balls like this one. A large amount of the shot was melted during the eventual battle. To view an interactive 3D model of this artifact click the button below.
FIGHT FOR LIBERTY
The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Great Britain. In order to defeat the Americans, the British offered freedom to enslaved people in return for their military service. Thousands answered the call, including freedom seekers living in Spanish Florida, southern states, and Indigenous lands. By 1814, British Commander Edward Nicolls established a foothold along the Apalachicola River at Prospect Bluff (called Achackwheithle by Muskogean speaking people), and occupied Spanish West Florida at Pensacola with Black soldiers and Creek, Seminole, Choctaw, and Miccosukee allies. Nicolls’s goal was to support the war in the Gulf South and promote the abolition of slavery.
During the Spanish colonial period, Florida was a sanctuary for freedom seekers. The first legally sanctioned all free Black town in what is now the United States was located near present day St. Augustine at a place called Fort Mose. In exchange for military service and converting to Catholicism, the Spanish offered formerly enslaved people freedom and social mobility. This petition by a free man of color named Prince Juan Bautista Wiet was for a land grant. Prince was awarded freedom and land for his military service to the Crown. Image courtesy of Florida State Archives (Florida Memory).
FREEDOM SEEKERS
About 4,000 freedom seekers joined the British during the war. Cyrus was one of the formerly enslaved people from Pensacola who enlisted. He was a 26-year-old mulatto (African and Spanish ancestry) who could read and write. He was a skilled carpenter and cooper. Cyrus was the first leader of “Negro Fort.”
This bayonet was used by one of the Colonial Marines stationed at Prospect Bluff. Brown Bess bayonet, Prospect Bluff Historic Sites, 1814-1816. To view an interactive 3D model of this artifact click the button below.
Artwork courtesy of Don Troiani.
To view more of Don Troiani's historical paintings visit his website below.
LEADERS OF PROSPECT BLUFF
Hundreds of freedom seekers and Native warriors converged on Prospect Bluff. Many of the people who found sanctuary at the fort broke free from slavery in Pensacola, including three individuals who would eventually become fort commanders: Cyrus, Prince, and Garcon. These men were skilled artisans who became leaders in Nicolls’s highly trained Corps of Colonial Marines.
Abraham was originally a shipwright enslaved by John Forbes & Company in Pensacola. In 1814, he freed himself by joining the British forces and later fled to “Negro Fort.” Like many Maroons, he eventually became part of the Black Seminoles. During the Seminole Wars, he served important roles as an advisor and interpreter. Image courtesy of the New York Public Library.
Prophet Josiah Francis came to Prospect Bluff in 1814 after the Creek Wars. He was a Red Stick leader who allied with the British and led some of the Native American warriors who constructed, trained at, and defended the fortification. Image courtesy of the British Museum.
Garcon was a 30-year-old carpenter enslaved by Pensacola politician Don Antonio Montero. He escaped by joining the Colonial Marines in 1814 and rose to the rank of sergeant major. He was likely married to a woman named Maria who was also enslaved by Montero. They both lived at Prospect Bluff. Garcon was wounded during the battle, interrogated, and executed. Maria was injured during the battle and forced back into slavery. Artwork courtesy of Dave Edwards, from publication "Images in Black: A Pictorial history of Black Pensacola" by Ora Wills.
HOME OF THE FREE
By the end of 1814, U.S. General Andrew Jackson invaded Pensacola and British forces retreated to Prospect Bluff. The British left when the war ended, but some of the Maroons and Indigenous people stayed. They were free people living around a stronghold. It was located at a spot along the Apalachicola River that enabled them to control the waterway. It was well supplied with firepower, tools, food, and even ships.
The forested area immediately surrounding Prospect Bluff was cut and harvested for wood in order to construct the fortification and homes built around it. This axe head was recovered from the site and was one of many used by the Maroons and Indigenous people to create the community. To view an interactive 3D model of this artifact click the button below.
This close up of the fort at Prospect Bluff was included on a map created in 1815 by Vincente Sebastian Pintado, Surveyor General of Spanish West Florida. The V shape facing the river was the fort redan, and the octagonal shape behind it is the fort's powder magazine. The squares around the fortification are the many homes and barracks where the soldiers and families lived. Courtesy of the Library of Congress.
A MAROON COMMUNITY
By 1815, hundreds of Black men, women, and children lived in the fort barracks, huts behind the fort, and at Maroon villages spread fifty miles up the riverbank. The community and networks they built around the fort included Maroons with different backgrounds and skills. For the next two years, they built homes, farmed, raised livestock, hunted, traded, and kept a close watch over their territory at Prospect Bluff.
This sherd (or broken piece of pottery) was recovered by archaeologists at the site of Prospect Bluff. The site of Prospect Bluff was a community. Artifacts like this represent the daily lives of the people who lived there. Details about how they built their homes, lived together, and ate were not recorded in documents. Instead, the stories about their daily activities remain buried at the site. Most of the previous archaeology at Prospect Bluff was done decades ago. It focused mainly on the fort itself. Many clues to what life was like for the hundreds of Indigenous and Black families who formed a community there await discovery where they made their homes: outside the fort in the village area. To view an interactive 3D model of this artifact click the button below.
This letter dated May 9, 1815 informs American officials in Mobile, Alabama, about how well the fort was armed. The informant, Samuel Jervais, reported that, among a number of cannon, it had “about three thousand stands of small arms, and near three thousand barrels of powder and ball." Image courtesy of the National Archives.
THE BATTLE OF NEGRO FORT
A thriving, free Black community near U.S. territory was intolerable to enslavers in the Gulf South. In 1816, Jackson ordered the Army, Navy, and Creek U.S. allied forces to assault the people who lived at Prospect Bluff. They sought the complete destruction of the fort and the enslavement of its community. Some of the people who lived at Prospect Bluff fled south before the assault began. Those who stayed did not go without a fight. They used their training to inflict damage on the initial wave of invading forces. When the U.S. Army surrounded the fort, Garcon (one of the Prospect Bluff leaders) raised the British ensign and a red flag to signal that they would never again surrender to a life of slavery.
A virtual reconstruction of "Negro Fort" features the British ensign and red flag flying overhead. The red flag, or "bloody red flag," meant that there would be no surrender and no quarter given to attackers. Image courtesy of Digital Heritage Interactive.
The fort at Prospect Bluff had a number of cannon mounted for protection. The Colonial Corps of Marines used them to defend the community when the Americans attacked them in 1816. This is an image of 12-pounder cannon fragment from one of the guns that exploded at Prospect Bluff during the "Battle of Negro Fort." To view an interactive 3D model of this artifact click the button below.
TRAGEDY AND SURVIVAL
Despite facing overwhelming military forces, the Maroons and Indigenous people fought bravely to defend their land. After seven days of resistance, one of the naval gunboats that ascended the Apalachicola River fired a heated round shot with devastating effects. The cannonball landed in the fort’s powder magazine. It ignited the barrels of gunpowder, which caused an explosion that killed 270 men, women, and children. Those who were captured were enslaved or executed. The people who escaped found sanctuary with Seminole people further south. Jackson waged war against these towns as well. The survivors ultimately created a community called Angola along the Manatee River.
The U.S. Navy sent two gunboats (Number 149 and Number 154) to assist the assault on "Negro Fort." These two U.S. gunboats were probably around 25 tons, about 60 feet on the keel, nearly 18 feet on the beam, and carried a few dozen sailors and several cannons. Gunboat 154 was under the command of U.S. Navy Captain Jarius Loomis. A heated cannon shot from Gunboat 154 ultimately ended the battle when it struck the fort's powder magazine. It was a lucky, and extremely fatal shot. The powerful blast was reportedly heard over 100 miles away. This cropped painting by Thomas L. Hornbrook (active 1836-1844) depicts a U.S. Navy gunboat at Lake Borgne outside of New Orleans engaged in battle in 1814. The American gunboats featured in the painting would have looked very similar to gunboats 149 and 154. Image courtesy of U.S. Naval History and Heritage Command.
This is one of the barrel bands from a powder keg recovered from Prospect Bluff. It was badly twisted from the explosion that destroyed the fortification and surrounding community. The destruction of the fort and dispersal of the community at Prospect Bluff was catastrophic. Archaeologists uncovered evidence from the explosion across the site. Many of the military items destroyed were used by the Corps of Colonial Marines and warriors to defend themselves. A large number of equipment survived the blast and were taken by the U.S. forces and their Creek allies. The “spoils of war” were estimated to be worth over $200,000 ($3.5 million in today’s currency). To view an interactive 3D model of this artifact click the button below.
The gunboats that attacked the fort reported to Commodore Daniel Patterson in New Orleans. This page is part of the official report communicated to the Secretary of Navy that detailed the attack. Here, Patterson mentions the raising of the British ensign and red flag at the fort. He reports that the flags are now in his possession and that he will “forward them to the Department.” Image courtesy of the National Archives.
THE "FIRST" SEMINOLE WAR
In 1818, American forces constructed a new fort at the site of Prospect Bluff. Following its completion, Jackson’s forces attacked Seminole villages and Maroons who lived along the St. Marks, Econfina, and Suwannee Rivers. This was part of the First Seminole War. The survivors of the “Battle of Negro Fort” fled south until they built Angola in present day Bradenton, Florida. Angola was soon destroyed in a raid by U.S. allied Creek warriors. Survivors were evacuated to the Bahamas, where their descendants live today. The Seminole Wars continued for the next several decades, as Seminole, Creek, Miccosukee, and Choctaw people resisted encroachment and forced removal from their ancestral homelands. While many Indigenous people were forced to leave Florida on the Trail of Tears, a number of them continued to fight. The Seminole Tribe of Florida and the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida are the descendants who managed to fight and stay despite incredible hardships.
Seminole pottery recovered from Prospect Bluff Historic Sites. “Redstick” was a 19th century term used to describe a faction of Indigenous people who resisted pressure from Anglo-Americans to change their traditional lifeways. They fought back to preserve their ancestral lands and protect their people. After several years of war and famine, “Redstick” Prophet Josiah Francis led Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, Yuchi, and Miccosukee survivors to help build and garrison the fort at Prospect Bluff. Many artifacts recovered from the site reflect their presence. Image taken by Jeffery Robinson.
Finding Angola: Documenting Manatee County's First Black Settlement
FORT GADSDEN
The Americans built Fort Gadsden on top of the site after the destruction of the Maroon community at Prospect Bluff. The 1814 "Negro Fort" at Prospect Bluff was substantially larger than the later, American built Fort Gadsden. Fort Gadsden was named after U.S. Lieutenant James Gadsden who oversaw its construction. From this location, U.S. General Andrew Jackson launched the First Seminole War against Maroons and Seminoles. Over time, the story of “Negro Fort” was buried beneath the surface.
This map shows the location of the later American built Fort Gadsden. Courtesy of the UWF Archaeology Institute.
In the mid 20th century the site was briefly run as a state park (although it was still part of the Apalachicola National Forest). This miniature model of Fort Gadsden was created by the Florida Park Service to show visitors what the later American period fort might have looked like. Image courtesy of Florida State Archives (Florida Memory).
ARCHAEOLOGICAL REMAINS
Archaeologists investigated the remains of Fort Gadsden in the 1950s. During their excavations, they discovered evidence of the Maroons and their Indigenous allies. Archaeologists found artifacts like pottery, lead balls, melted metal fragments, gun flints, and scraps of iron. In the 1960s, archaeologists excavated large trenches on the site. Among some of the finds were badly bent and twisted brass straps from ammo chests blown apart. They also discovered portions of the barrel hoops from the powder barrels that caused the explosion.
The first archaeological investigation of the site of Prospect Bluff was conducted by John Griffin 1950. It was the first Maroon community to be investigated by archaeologists in the state. Image courtesy of Florida State Archives (Florida Memory).
Several artifacts excavated from the site in the 1960s were featured in a display as part of an interpretive kiosk at Prospect Bluff Historic Sites. This photo of the exhibit was taken in 2021. Image courtesy of Dawn Lawrence, U.S. Forest Service.
In 2018, Hurricane Michael brought category five damage across the Florida Panhandle. Prospect Bluff Historic Sites was hit particularly hard. Several trees were uprooted, displacing many artifacts underground. Archaeologists and Forest Service staff worked to recover any material culture disturbed. Image courtesy of U.S. Forest Service.
PHOTOGRAMMETERY: How We Created the Models
In 2022, the Florida Public Archaeology Network East Central and Northwest regional offices created 3D models of some of the artifacts from Prospect Bluff. The staff accomplished this by using photogrammetry. To see how this process works, click on the video below for an explanation by FPAN Public Archaeologist Emma Dietrich.
A 3D model of a barrel band recovered from Prospect Bluff Historic Sites. This barrel band was from one of the powder kegs that exploded at the site in 1816. Some of the brass barrel bands were engraved with the "King's mark" or "broad arrow." This symbol meant it belonged to the British Crown. To view the entire Prospect Bluff 3D model collection click the button below.
PROSPECT BLUFF HISTORIC SITES
Today, Prospect Bluff Historic Sites is a sacred cultural destination within the Apalachicola National Forest. It is a designated U.S. National Historic Landmark and a location on the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom. Prospect Bluff Historic Sites remains an important archaeological site and burial place that is protected by state and federal law. Archaeologists continue to study the site in consultation with descendant communities and tribes with respect and care. Visitors to Prospect Bluff Historic Sites can see the remains of the fort’s earthworks. Archaeologists recently used ground penetrating radar at the site to locate the unmarked graves. The site was temporarily closed due to damage from Hurricane Michael. It is anticipated to reopen to the public sometime in 2022.
Prospect Bluff Historic Sites features spectacular views of the Apalachicola River. Photo taken at Prospect Bluff in 2018. Image taken by Mike Thomin.
The location of the magazine that exploded is marked on the site by a British flag. Image taken by Mike Thomin.
Visitors to the site can explore several interpretive signs that explain the story and significance of the community who lived and died around the fort. Image taken by Mike Thomin.
The Fort at Prospect Bluff produced by Two Egg TV
The Maroon Marines: Archaeology at Prospect Bluff Exhibit
In 2022, the Florida Public Archaeology Network Coordinating Center created a temporary exhibit about the Maroon community at Prospect Bluff. The exhibit had an opening reception on March 4th with over 80 people attending. The City of Pensacola Mayor, several current and former city councilmembers, and descendants joined throughout the evening. It was the first time artifacts curated by the U.S. Forest Service from the site of Prospect Bluff have been on loan. The exhibit will be on display at the Destination Archaeology Resource Center museum until the fall of 2022. This exhibit was made possible through a partnership between the University of West Florida's Florida Public Archaeology Network and the U.S. Forest Service. For more info visit the Destination Archaeology Resource Center's website.
City of Pensacola Councilmember Teniadé Broughton (left) and Penscola Mayor Grover Robinson (right) address over 80 people who attended the opening reception of the exhibit at the Destination Archaeology Resource Center. The opening reception was funded by Councilmember Teniadé Broughton. Image taken by Nicole Grinnan.
This exhibit would not be possible without the work of many individuals dedicated to telling the story of the site and preserving it for all. Special thanks to Dawn Lawrence, Councilmember Teniadé Broughton, Meghan Mumford, Dr. Matthew Clavin, Dale Cox, Dr. Rosalyn Howard, Dr. Uzi Baram, Dr. Gene Allen Smith, Dr. Nathaniel Millet, Dr. Jane Landers, Dr. Terrance Weik, and Jeff Shanks. Supporting organizations include the U.S. Forest Service, National Park Service, Two Egg TV, and the City of Pensacola. Special thanks also to Emma Dietrich, Jeffery Robinson, and Nicole Grinnan for creating the 3D models. And for exhibit installation thanks to Taylor Brown and Chrissy Perl. Exhibit design and text by Mike Thomin.